The Manila Observatory and the Italian seismological tradition in the Far East: endogenous meteorology in the Philippine Islands

The Manila Observatory, established in 1865, was a leading centre for geophysical research in the Far East for 80 years (1865–1945). It conducted pioneering studies in meteorology, geomagnetism, seismology, volcanology, and astronomy. Instrumental seismology began at the Observatory shortly after its founding, and its early development exhibited distinctive characteristics: It developed more rapidly than in Spain (the dominating power at that time) and it became a unique example of the Italian seismological tradition, particularly endogenous meteorology, taking root in Asia. Early Italian instruments such as seismographs, tromometers, and seismic telephones were installed and used extensively in Manila. By 1890, the Observatory became the central station of the Philippine seismological network. However, seismological research in the Philippines was not confined to the Observatory; other significant developments, especially in engineering seismology, also emerged during this period. This study offers an introductory analysis and evaluation of the early stages of instrumental seismology in the Philippines, highlighting its roots in the Italian seismological tradition—particularly the theories of endogenous meteorology—and its related scientific research.