Nanovaccines: Innovative Advances from Design Strategies to Clinical Translation.

Nanovaccines have emerged as a transformative platform in immunotherapy, distinguished by their capabilities in targeted antigen delivery, enhanced immunogenicity, and multifunctional integration. By leveraging nanocarriers, these vaccines achieve precise antigen transport, improve immune activation efficiency, and enable synergistic functions such as antigen protection and adjuvant co-delivery. This review comprehensively explores the foundational design principles of nanovaccines, delves into the diversity of nanovaccine design strategies-including the selection of primary carrier materials, functionalization modification, synergistic delivery of immune adjuvants, and self-assembled nano-delivery systems-and highlights their applications in cancer immunotherapy, infectious disease and autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, it critically examines existing technical challenges and translational barriers, providing an integrative reference to guide future research and development in this dynamic field.