Measuring hydrological alterations and landscape patterns for sustainable development through ecosystem connectivity in Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary, India.

Floodplain wetlands are invaluable ecosystems providing numerous ecological benefits, yet they face a global crisis necessitating sustainable preservation efforts. This study examines the depletion of floodplain wetlands within the Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary (HWLS) in Uttar Pradesh. Encroachment activities such as grazing, agriculture, and human settlements have fragmented and degraded critical wetland ecosystems. Additionally, irrigation projects, dam construction, and water diversion have disrupted natural water flow and availability. To assess wetland inundation in 2023, five classification techniques were employed: Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), artificial neural network (ANN), Spectral Information Divergence (SID), and Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC). SVM emerged as the most precise method, as determined by kappa coefficient and index-based validation. Consequently, the SVM classifier was used to model wetland inundation areas from 1983 to 2023 and analyze spatiotemporal changes and fragmentation patterns. The findings revealed that the SVM classifier accurately mapped 2023 wetland areas. The modeled time-series data demonstrated a 62.55 % and 38.12 % reduction in inundated wetland areas over the past 40 years in the pre- and post-monsoon periods, respectively. Fragmentation analysis indicated an 86.27 % decrease in large core wetland areas in the pre-monsoon period, signifying severe habitat degradation. This rapid decline in wetlands within protected areas raises concerns about their ecological impacts. By linking wetland loss to global sustainability objectives, this study underscores the global urgency for strengthened wetland protection measures and highlights the need for integrating wetland conservation into broader sustainable development goals. Effective policies and adaptive management strategies are crucial for preserving these ecosystems and their vital services, which are essential for biodiversity, climate regulation, and human well-being.