Microwave-assisted extraction of Garcinia × mangostana L. and its ‘Mesta’ cultivar rinds: Physicochemical and antioxidant properties analyzed using multiple chemometric algorithms

Mangosteen rind is an underutilized by-product rich in bioactive compounds. This study assessed the effect of microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) using different protic and aprotic solvents on the rinds of common mangosteen (Garcinia × mangostana L.) and its cultivar, Garcinia × mangostana L. ‘Mesta’. Extracts were determined for yield (8.71–20.84 %), total phenolic content (TPC) (41.04–116.35 mg GAE/g), and total xanthone content (TXC) (5.14–76.13 mg ME/g). Aprotic solvents, particularly acetone, were effective in extracting TXC (57.75–76.13 mg ME/g), which corresponded to higher antioxidant activities (ABTS: 101.27–119.17 mg TE/g; DPPH: 639.68–649.54 mg TE/g). Conversely, distilled water yielded the highest TPC, corresponding with superior FRAP values (450.77–513.23 mg Fe(II)/g). These findings highlight the critical role of solvent polarity in determining extraction efficiency and antioxidant potential. Furthermore, both unsupervised and supervised chemometric analyses (PCA, HCA, and PLS-DA) revealed solvent-dependent clustering patterns in the physicochemical and bioactivity profiles. Acetone extracts were associated with high TXC and radical scavenging activity, whereas water extracts correlated with elevated TPC and FRAP values. PLS-DA further determined key variables for extract differentiation. Overall, six extracts (LT, LM, LH, LA, MD, and LY) were determined as promising candidates for functional food and nutraceutical development due to their enriched bioactive profiles.