Advances in multi-scale anti-icing surfaces: Interfacial freezing mechanisms, multifunctional design, and real-world application challenges

Ice accumulation poses severe threats to the safety, efficiency, and sustainability of infrastructures in aviation, energy, and transportation. Conventional de−/anti-icing approaches, however, are constrained by high energy demand, poor durability, and environmental concerns, highlighting the urgency of advanced material solutions. Recent breakthroughs demonstrate that precise modulation of surface chemistry, hierarchical structuring, and photothermal/electrothermal coupling can effectively inhibit ice nucleation, suppress crystal growth, and reduce adhesion. This review systematically elucidates the physicochemical mechanisms of interfacial freezing—covering wetting transitions, thermal transport, and heterogeneous nucleation—and connects them to the rational design of multifunctional coatings. Special emphasis is placed on superhydrophobic architecture, biomimetic and adaptive designs, and self-healing composites that collectively enhance efficiency, robustness, and environmental adaptability. Finally, we critically discuss the challenges of scalable fabrication, durability under extreme conditions, and the lack of standardized evaluation methods, while offering perspectives toward the realization of intelligent, sustainable, and next-generation anti−/de-icing systems.