Inclusive pathways to understand differential forest recreation participation among ethnoracial minorities in the United States

Public forests offer a variety of outdoor recreation activities that enhance participants’ well-being, yet participation remains low among ethnic minorities in the United States. These groups face multiple barriers, including limited information, transportation and financial constraints, safety concerns, fear of discrimination, and wildlife-related anxieties, which are often shaped by broader structural and cultural contexts. While understanding of these barriers is improving, gaps persist in conceptualizing the cognitive, social, and structural factors that influence forest recreation behavior. This review synthesizes literature on outdoor recreation constraints, emphasizing barriers unique to ethnic minorities and overlooked social influences. Drawing from the Theory of Planned Behavior, Social Cognitive Theory, Cognitive Appraisal Theory, Theory of Outdoor Recreation Constraints, and Social Complexity Theory, we propose an inclusive, process-oriented conceptual model. The framework identifies socio-psychological factors shaping forest recreation behavior, providing a foundation for future empirical studies and informing equitable, diverse, and inclusive public forest recreation policies.