Recent advances in iron sulfides for heavy metal remediation and their environmental behaviors

The retention and transformation of heavy metals are often closely associated with iron sulfides under natural or anthropogenic conditions. However, current research predominantly focuses on the synthesis and applications of iron sulfides for the removal of specific pollutants, with limited discussion on the iron sulfides toward heavy metals from a life cycle analysis perspective. This article reviews the geochemical interactions between natural iron sulfides and heavy metals in ores, sediments and plant roots firstly. And then the applications of various synthetic iron sulfides for remediating heavy metal pollution are presented, including the mechanisms interacted with heavy metals, the methods for preparing iron sulfides, and their implementations in addressing contaminations. Moreover, the aging processes and environmental impacts of iron sulfides after application are discussed to emphasize the life cycle analysis. Based on current research on iron sulfides, large-scale production, sustainable utilization, and studies on toxicity are identified as promising directions for future investigation.