Overview of Primary and Secondary Metabolites of Rugulopteryx okamurae Seaweed: Assessing Bioactivity, Scalability, and Molecular Mechanisms.

Rugulopteryx okamurae is an invasive brown alga that has colonised Mediterranean and northeastern Atlantic coastlines, posing significant ecological and economic challenges. Its biomass is rich in structurally diverse metabolites-including polysaccharides (alginate, fucoidan, laminaran), phlorotannins, diterpenoids, fatty acids, and peptides-many of which exhibit notable antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. Comparative assessment of extraction yields, structural features, and bioactivity data highlights phlorotannins and diterpenoids as particularly promising, demonstrating low-micromolar potencies and favourable predicted interactions with key inflammatory and apoptotic targets. Algal polysaccharides exhibit various bioactivities but hold strong potential for scalable and sustainable industrial applications. Emerging compound classes such as fatty acids and peptides display niche bioactivities; however, their structural diversity and mechanisms of action remain insufficiently explored. Insights from in vitro and in silico studies suggest that phlorotannins may modulate NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways, while diterpenoids are implicated in the induction of mitochondrial apoptosis. Despite these findings, inconsistent extraction methodologies and a lack of in vivo pharmacokinetic and efficacy data limit translational potential. To overcome these limitations, standardized extraction protocols, detailed structure-activity relationship (SAR) and pharmacokinetic studies, and robust in vivo models are urgently needed. Bioactivity-guided valorisation strategies, aligned with ecological management, could transform R. okamurae biomass into a sustainable source for functional foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals applications.