Comparative Environmental Assessment of Three Urine Recycling Scenarios: Influence of Treatment Configurations and Life Cycle Modeling Approaches.

Urine recycling is an emerging promising approach for enhancing resource recovery and mitigating environmental impacts in sanitation systems. This study presents a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of a urine dehydration system implemented at three levels of decentralization: (i) toilet-level units within bathrooms; (ii) basement-level units serving multiple households; and (iii) centralized neighborhood-scale facilities using dedicated sewers for off-site processing. Each configuration is assessed using both consequential and attributional system models across five impact categories: global warming potential, acidification, freshwater and marine eutrophication, and cumulative energy demand. The basement-level system consistently shows the lowest impacts, with up to 50% lower global warming potential than the other configurations. Centralized treatment is the most energy-efficient per liter of urine treated, but the sewer infrastructure burden offsets this advantage. Sensitivity analysis shows that substituting sulfuric acid for citric acid and achieving >52% heat recovery can yield net-negative emissions at the basement level. The choice of the LCA system model strongly affects results: attributional with substitution yields net-negative impacts, whereas consequential provides more conservative but robust estimates. The findings underscore the need for methodological transparency in LCA and provide guidance for scaling sustainable decentralized urine recycling.