Understanding Oak Decline in Europe: Ecological Factors, Symptoms, Causative Agents, and Management Strategies.

The genus Quercus, which includes approximately 30 species, plays a vital role in European forest, urban, and suburban ecosystems. European oak stands have experienced episodic decline and death since the nineteenth century, with an increasing and consistent occurrence starting in the early decades of the twentieth century. Oak decline is a syndrome involving a variety of symptoms including canopy thinning, leaf chlorosis, microphyllia, dead branches, bark cracks, bleeding of dark exudates through the stem, inner tissue necrosis, and mortality. Abiotic and biotic stress factors, varying from site to site in exposure time and intensity, have triggered decline events in many regions of Europe. The most common nonliving factors that may be involved in oak decline are weather anomalies and extreme events (e.g., flooding, frost, hail, windstorms, heat waves, water shortage, and drought), as well as chemical air pollutants. Biotic factors include Phytophthora species, sap-sucking and defoliating insects (i.e., Tortrix viridana and Lymantria dispar), and secondary agents like bark- and wood-boring insects and latent pathogens. Among the latter, some Botryosphaeriaceae species, the xylariaceous charcoal canker pathogen Biscogniauxia mediterranea, and the oak anthracnose fungus Apiognomonia quercina have a prominent role. Other biotic stressors, occurring more sporadically with limited effects, are powdery mildews of the genus Erysiphe, wood decay fungi like Armillaria spp. and other wood-rotting basidiomycetes, and bacteria. Identifying the causal factors at specific sites faces the challenge of assessing the interplay of predisposing, inciting, and contributing factors. To mitigate oak decline, it may be necessary to create more resilient forests better adapted to global environmental changes and current disturbance regimes through integrated management incorporating proactive silviculture, innovative control methods of diseases and pests, and ecological restoration actions.