Metal mining is a global driver of environmental change

Global metal extraction is increasing, owing to rising mineral demands from infrastructure development and the growing need for metal-intensive renewable energy technologies to mitigate climate change and phase out coal mining. However, extraction of metal ores also drives impacts on land use, water resources and biodiversity. In this Review, we evaluate mining trends of 47 metal ores between 1970 and 2022 and explore the environmental consequences. Global extraction of crude metal ores has nearly quadrupled, from 2.7 gigatonnes (Gt) in 1970 to almost 9.4 Gt in 2022, with the greatest increases in Oceania (+1,222%), South America (+929%) and Asia (+285%). Ore-specific mining activities are generally concentrated, with the top-five producers contributing on average 82.7% of the global supply in 2022. The impacts of mining are also concentrated. In 2022, about 50% of the 100,000 km2 global mining areas were located in Russia, China, Australia, the United States and Indonesia. Mining-induced water consumption, pollution and biodiversity loss substantially affect local ecosystems, with tropical rainforests and deserts being especially vulnerable. Around 70% of global metal extraction is linked to international supply chains. Enhanced environmental assessments, stricter implementation of policies, and coordinated actions across sectors throughout supply chains (mining, processing, consumers and financial markets) can help to mitigate the environmental impacts of mining. Global metal ore extraction has increased almost fourfold since 1970. This Review explores the drivers, patterns and environmental consequences of the growth of metal ore extraction and discusses interventions to reduce negative impacts across metal supply chains.