Lead(II) sensing in biological and environmental systems: A decade (2015–2024) of fluorescent probe innovations and emerging trends

Lead (Pb²⁺) contamination in environmental and biological systems causes a significant risk to human health and ecosystems because of its high toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation potential. Even at trace levels, exposure to lead can result in severe neurological, developmental, and organ-related disorders. Hence, the development of highly sensitive and selective detection methods for Pb²⁺ is crucial. This review provides an overview of recent advancements in lead chromofluorogenic sensors (2015–2024), including Schiff bases, homocyclic and heterocyclic aromatic compounds, molecular organic frameworks (MOFs), macrocyclic ligands and nanomaterial-based approaches. The sensing mechanisms, detection limits, response times, and analytical applications in biological and environmental monitoring of the reviewed Pb^2 + sensors have been discussed. Additionally, the challenges and future perspectives of Pb²⁺ sensing technologies are discussed to guide further research in this critical field.