Microplastics in the human food chain: A review of prevalence, contamination pathways, and mitigation strategies in salt, seafood, and freshwater fish

Microplastics (MPs) have become widespread pollutants in aquatic environments, making their way into the human food chain via salt, seafood, and freshwater fish. This review synthesizes recent global findings on the prevalence, characteristics, and polymer composition of MPs in these essential dietary items, while outlining their main contamination pathways from marine and freshwater pollution to processing, packaging, and atmospheric deposition. Reported concentrations show significant variability, with some areas displaying concerningly high levels of contamination, indicative of disparities in environmental pollution, production techniques, and regulatory measures. The health implications of MP ingestion present a pressing issue, with experimental studies indicating connections to inflammation, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, and the possible bioaccumulation of harmful co-contaminants, despite a scarcity of direct human epidemiological data. The current detection methods, such as FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, and Py-GC/MS, are thoroughly assessed for their advantages and drawbacks, in conjunction with the latest advancements in microfluidic and biosensor technologies. The strategies for mitigation outlined encompass upstream source reduction, improved processing controls, more stringent quality assurance measures, initiatives to raise public awareness, and the creation of biodegradable alternatives. Significant research gaps have been pinpointed, especially the necessity for standardized detection protocols, comprehensive toxicological assessments, and epidemiological studies that establish a direct connection between dietary MP exposure and human health outcomes. This review combines recent regional case studies with technological and policy interventions to provide a thorough framework aimed at guiding future enquiries and informing evidence-based strategies for protecting food safety and public health against the rising threat of MP pollution.