Crafting excellence: reconstructing the mould technology of Shang period bronze ritual vessels at Anyang, China

The renowned Anyang moulds from the late Shang period represent the pinnacle of piece-mould technology in ancient China. This research examines recently excavated mould materials from the Xindian site in Anyang. A combination of archaeological, geological, and targeted experimental samples has been used to systematically reconstruct the chaîne opératoire using OM, SEM-EDS, micro-CT scanning, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. Ancient craftspeople intentionally prepared four distinct pastes for specific components of the mould assembly, employing varied raw material selection and processing strategies. Diverse finishing techniques were used to refine the decoration on outer moulds. Outer moulds and inner cores were fired at different temperatures and then reassembled, possibly undergoing preheating before casting. Coatings serving as releasing agents and sealing materials were identified. The technological choices made by ancient craftspeople indicate extensive knowledge and expertise, balancing stringent performance requirements with efficient production. The high level of craftsmanship applied to the Anyang moulds provided a foundation for the extraordinary artistic and stylistic achievements in bronze production during the late Shang period.