Nutritional and health beneficial properties of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L): A comprehensive review

The goal of this comprehensive review is to synthesize the contemporary scientific knowledge of Spinacia oleracea L. (spinach) through systematic examination of its botanical, nutritional, and therapeutic properties. This nutritionally dense leafy green vegetable is characterized by multifaceted therapeutic properties. The nutritional composition is thoroughly analyzed, emphasizing its rich vitamin profile (particularly folate, vitamin K, and ascorbic acid), mineral content (iron, magnesium, and potassium), and phytochemical constituents, including flavonoids, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds, which serve as the primary bioactive agents responsible for health-promoting effects. The therapeutic potential is systematically evaluated through evidence-based analysis of demonstrated biological activities, including antioxidant capacity, anti-inflammatory mechanisms, anti-neoplastic properties, anti-diabetic effects, hypolipidemic activity, anti-macular degeneration potential, neuroprotective functions, anti-osteoporotic capabilities, hepatoprotective properties, and cardiovascular and gastrointestinal effects. Clinical investigations examining spinach consumption and spinach-derived phytochemicals are critically assessed to establish practical health applications and determine optimal therapeutic dosages. Through comprehensive database searches spanning from inception to 2024, this review provides an exhaustive analysis of spinach's agricultural significance and medicinal value while identifying promising research trajectories in nutraceutical development, biofortification strategies, and functional food applications. By integrating traditional ethnobotanical knowledge with contemporary scientific findings, this review delivers valuable insights for researchers, healthcare professionals, and consumers seeking to understand the nutritional and therapeutic benefits for evidence-based dietary interventions.