Microplastics in the human body and environment: Pathways, health impacts, detection, and removal strategies

Microplastics (MPs) are among the most persistent environmental contaminants due to their widespread presence in water, soil, food, beverages, and biological tissues. Annually, millions of tons of plastic waste degrade into micro-sized particles (5 mm to 1 μm) through physical, chemical, and biological processes. MPs pose significant risks to humans, animals, and plants, with confirmed presence in human biological samples such as breast milk, feces, urine, and semen. These particles have been linked to respiratory disorders, inflammation, cellular damage, metabolic disturbances, and reproductive dysfunction. In this study, we systematically classify MPs by size, shape, origin, and chemical structure, and review their environmental distribution and human health implications. We further provide a comparative analysis of microscopic and spectroscopic methods for MPs detection, and evaluate the advantages and limitations of current physical, chemical, and biological remediation strategies. The review concludes with an emphasis on the most pressing challenges in MPs research and highlights future directions for mitigation and policy development.