Ontologies relevant for improving data interoperability for food loss and waste: A review and research agenda

Food loss and waste (FLW) is a global challenge. Interoperable FLW ontologies will foster more comprehensive data sharing and inform better solutions to reduce and recover excess food and to valorize wasted food and food byproducts. This review reveals that only eight ontologies currently address FLW with most emphasizing valorization. Notably, few are designed explicitly to support FLW reduction, and none facilitate food recovery, which is critical given that reduction and recovery are the preferred means of mitigating FLW. Furthermore, existing FLW ontologies show limited alignment with recognized gold-standard frameworks, for example the Open Biological and Biomedical Ontology (OBO) Foundry, and none support ongoing connectivity to external ontologies, restricting their utility across stakeholder domains. Looking ahead, there is a pressing need to create or expand ontologies that adhere to best practices from relevant foundries to ensure robust linkage and interoperability and undergird structured data ecosystems that support food systems stakeholders in FLW prevention and mitigation. Achieving this goal will require active collaboration among a diverse range of stakeholders, including builders of food systems cyberinfrastructure, scientists, innovators, regulators, public and private funders, community-based organizations, policymakers, and international NGOs as each rely on critical ontological elements to inform decision-making, measure impact, and drive improvement across the food supply chain. Finally, large language models offer promising capabilities for expediting ontology creation, broadening inclusivity in ontology creation, and enhancing the accuracy of resulting data infrastructures.