Application and development prospects of bio-based smart responsive hydrogels in insulin delivery.

The increasing prevalence of diabetes has made insulin formulations a cornerstone in the management of the disease. However, traditional insulin delivery methods, such as subcutaneous and intravenous injections, face several challenges, including the need for frequent administration, insulin resistance, and the risk of hypoglycemia. This review examines the use of hydrogels in insulin delivery, with focus on recent advancements in the precise control of insulin release through smart response mechanisms, including pH, glucose, and temperature. The crosslinking methods and polymer compositions of hydrogels are pivotal in enhancing their biocompatibility, mechanical properties, and release regulation. Moreover, composite systems incorporating various carriers, such as nanoparticles, liposomes, and microneedles, offer significant improvements in insulin loading capacity and stable release profiles. The review also explores the potential applications of bioinspired designs and machine learning techniques in optimizing hydrogel material properties, reducing the cost of production, and enhancing the safety and efficacy of insulin delivery. Hydrogels have tremendous development space in drug delivery systems, but they face translational challenges. Through analyzing the storage, scale production and regulatory hurdles of hydrogels, this review offers some exploratory solutions. These strategies aim to promote the clinical application of insulin hydrogels and provide safer and more effective treatment options for patients with diabetes.