Advancing perovskite solar cells with biomass-derived solvents: a pathway to sustainability†

The conventional fabrication of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) relies on toxic solvents such as N,N-dimethylformamide and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMF and DMSO), which are harmful to the environment and health. This study introduces γ-valerolactone (GVL), a biomass-derived green solvent, as a sustainable alternative for perovskite precursor processing. By combining GVL with ethyl acetate (EA), a less toxic antisolvent, PSCs achieve a high efficiency of 23.74% without hazardous chemicals. Beyond laboratory-scale performance, we conducted a system-level evaluation integrating techno-economic analysis and life-cycle assessment to assess the manufacturing cost, environmental impact, and scalability. GVL/EA-based PSCs can lower manufacturing costs by 50% and reduce climate change impact by 80% compared to DMF/DMSO systems. Furthermore, global deployment scenarios identify break-even points—considering module lifetime and recycling strategies—where these green PSCs can effectively compete with other renewable energy sources including silicon photovoltaics. Overall, our findings highlight the potential of the GVL/EA solvent system to enable a safer, more sustainable, and economically viable route for commercialization.