Bystander behavior in traditional and cyberbullying in late childhood: Profiles, developmental paths, and their associations with psychosocial adjustment

With the rapid advancement of digital technology, cyberbullying has emerged as a significant challenge for children worldwide, forming a complex ecosystem with traditional bullying. Although bystanders constitute the majority in bullying incidents and critically influence their dynamics, prior research has largely examined them in isolation, overlooking integrated patterns and longitudinal transitions. This study utilized a three-wave longitudinal design and random intercept latent transition analysis (RI-LTA) to identify profiles and developmental paths of bystander behavior across traditional and cyberbullying contexts during late childhood and explored their associations with psychosocial adjustment. Four profiles were identified: consistent pro-bullying, consistent low defending, cyber pro-bullying dominant, and consistent defending. The consistent defending profile showed the highest stability and was associated with favorable psychosocial adjustment, whereas the consistent pro-bullying profile was associated with the poorest psychosocial adjustment. The cyber pro-bullying dominant profile exhibited the lowest stability and the highest likelihood of transitioning into the consistent defending profile. Surprisingly, this profile reported fewer internalizing problems, more prosocial behavior, and higher well-being. Moreover, individuals transitioning from maladaptive bystander profiles to the consistent defending profile was associated with improved psychosocial adjustment, whereas those shifting in the opposite direction exhibited declines. These findings highlight late childhood as a pivotal period for bystander-focused interventions and offer empirical support for integrated bullying prevention strategies.