Temporal basis function models for closed-loop neural stimulation.

Objective.Closed-loop neural stimulation provides novel therapies for neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD), but it is not yet clear whether artificial intelligence (AI) techniques can tailor closed-loop stimulation to individual patients or identify new therapies. Further advancements are required to address a number of difficulties with translating AI to this domain, including sample efficiency, training time, and minimizing loop latency such that stimulation may be shaped in response to changing brain activity.Approach.We propose temporal basis function models (TBFMs) to address these difficulties, and explore this approach in the context of excitatory optogenetic stimulation. We demonstrate the ability of TBF models to provide a single-trial, spatiotemporal forward prediction of the effect of optogenetic stimulation on local field potentials measured in two non-human primates. The simplicity of TBF models allow them to be sample efficient (<20 min of training data), rapid to train (<5 min), and low latency (<0.2 ms) on desktop CPUs.Main results.We demonstrate the model on 40 sessions of previously published excitatory optogenetic stimulation data. Surprisingly, on test sets it achieved a prediction accuracy 44% higher than a complex nonlinear dynamical systems model that requires hours to train, and 158% higher than a linear state-space model requiring 90 min to train. Additionally, in two simulations we show that it successfully allows a closed-loop stimulator to drive neural trajectories, and to achieve the user-preferred trade-offs between under- and over-stimulation, given the uncertainty in the model; it achieves an area under curve of ∼0.7 in both cases.Significance.By optimizing for sample efficiency, training time, and latency, our approach begins to bridge the gap between complex AI-based approaches to modeling dynamical systems and the vision of using such forward prediction models to develop novel, clinically useful closed-loop stimulation protocols.