The multidimensional phenomenon of left behindness: a local approach

Territorial inequalities have become a pressing challenge in Europe, fueling political debates and shaping political responses around the urban-rural dichotomy. In this paper, we present a novel approach by identifying left behind places at a municipal level (LAU2) across 11 European countries. Using the Alkire-Foster family indicators, we construct a multidimensional index incorporating well-known predictors, grouped into four dimensions—Education, Access to infrastructure and Transportation, Employment and Economic Activity, and Demographic and Social Structure. Our findings reveal rural areas are disproportionately affected. Nonetheless, left behindness is a place-specific phenomenon, varying significantly within and across countries. The index decomposability allows for an in-depth assessment by urbanization level, confirming that while economic stagnation and demographic decline are common features, deprivation drivers differ across regions. Our results highlight the importance of place-based policies to address structural disadvantages effectively; they also provide a valuable framework for monitoring spatial inequalities and guiding targeted interventions under the EU Cohesion Policy.