Recent advances in near-infrared-II (NIR-II) small molecule fluorophores for cancer theranostics

Phototherapy has emerged as a prominent cancer treatment modality, achieving precise tumor ablation via light-driven photochemical or photothermal effects in target tissues using specific wavelengths. In the field of phototherapy, near-infrared-II (NIR-II) fluorescence imaging has emerged as an exceptionally effective method for deep tissue imaging in vivo, providing superior tissue penetration, high sensitivity, and outstanding spatiotemporal resolution. Strategic design of small-molecule organic NIR-II fluorophores with customizable molecular structures, superior optical properties, and high biocompatibility is critical for leveraging NIR-II imaging in precise cancer diagnosis and therapy. This review highlights molecular engineering strategies such as donor–acceptor optimization, π-system expansion, and aggregation suppression to improve emission wavelength, quantum yield, and photostability. We further evaluate their dual roles in real-time tumor imaging and photodynamic/photothermal therapy, emphasizing structure–performance relationships. Current challenges such as low quantum efficiency (<1%) and aggregation-induced quenching are discussed alongside emerging solutions like nanocarrier encapsulation and AI-driven molecular design. These innovations advance clinical translation by integrating preclinical insights into image-guided precision oncology systems.