Integrative nanoparticle strategies in crop disease control: Comparative antimicrobial mechanisms, regulatory insights, and future pathways

The escalating threat of plant pathogens to global food security necessitates the development of innovative, effective, and environmentally sustainable control strategies. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising frontier in agricultural science, particularly through the use of nanoparticles (NPs) as novel antimicrobial agents capable of enhancing plant defense and disease management. This review offers a comprehensive and comparative synthesis of current knowledge on various classes of NPs, including metallic, carbon-based, and polymeric types, evaluating their underlying antimicrobial mechanisms such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, membrane disruption, and gene modulation. We further examine their modes of application, dosage efficiency, and performance in both laboratory and field contexts. In contrast to prior reviews, this work provides a critical analysis of key trade-offs associated with NP use, including phytotoxicity, environmental persistence, formulation challenges, and scalability for commercial agriculture. A conceptual framework is introduced to link specific NP types to their biocidal mechanisms, target pathogens, and practical deployment pathways. The review also highlights gaps in regulatory oversight and presents emerging concerns regarding ecotoxicological impacts on soil microbiota, non-target organisms, and ecosystem health. Finally, we identify actionable research priorities that include the need for long-term field validation studies, advancement of green synthesis technologies, and integration of NP-based approaches into holistic crop management systems such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and precision agriculture. By aligning laboratory innovation with field-level feasibility, this review advances the scientific foundation and real-world applicability of nanoparticle-based strategies in sustainable plant protection.