Protectors or perpetrators? The paradox of male guardianship and gender-based violence in Libya: A multi-method qualitative study

Gender-based violence (GBV) remains a pervasive public health issue and human rights violation, deeply entrenched in patriarchal norms and legal frameworks. In Libya, systems and institutions regulate women's autonomy, reinforcing structural barriers that limit access to protection and justice. This study explores how sociocultural and structural factors shape women's vulnerability to GBV within the Libyan context. Using a multi-methods qualitative approach, we conducted 16 in-depth interviews, nine focus group discussions with 54 women, and 11 key informant interviews with GBV service providers and policymakers across Tripoli, Benghazi, and Sabha. Our thematic analysis revealed that Libyan women face multiple intersecting vulnerabilities, including economic dependence, restricted mobility, and legal ambiguities that sustain GBV. Many women rely on male guardians for protection, yet this dependency often facilitates cycles of control and violence. While some women have begun to challenge traditional gender roles through financial independence and social activism, systemic barriers continue to constrain their agency. Findings highlight the urgent need for legislative reforms criminalizing GBV, expanded survivor-centered support services, and awareness and education campaigns to challenge deeply embedded gender norms. Policy interventions should address the lack of legal protections, promote alternative support structures, and engage men as allies in GBV prevention. A holistic approach integrating legal, social, and economic reforms is essential to dismantle structural inequalities and ensure women's safety, rights, and autonomy in Libya.