Neonicotinoids and human health: Environmental fate, toxicity mechanisms, and future directions

Neonicotinoid insecticides are among the most widely used agricultural chemicals globally, playing a significant role in controlling pests. However, their unintended effects on non-target species, particularly humans, have sparked global health and environmental concerns. This article reviews the environmental distribution, metabolic pathways, and mechanisms of action of neonicotinoids, as well as their toxicity to multiple human systems, including the digestive, respiratory, nervous, and endocrine systems. We dissect the molecular pathways linking neonicotinoid exposure to oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death, and discuss other potential harms, such as nephrotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, pancreatic toxicity, and immunotoxicity. Additionally, we emphasize the importance of monitoring neonicotinoids and their metabolites and propose key areas for future research, including in-depth studies of toxicity mechanisms, assessments of combined toxicity effects, the development of biomarkers, and strategies to reduce environmental release and human exposure. The conclusion of this article underscores the necessity of taking multifaceted measures to reduce the environmental release and human exposure of neonicotinoids, as well as the urgency of conducting interdisciplinary research to fully understand the environmental fate and health impacts of neonicotinoids. Through these efforts, we can better protect human health from the potential hazards of neonicotinoids and promote the sustainable use of pesticides.