The Prevalence and Concentration of Mycotoxins (Aflatoxins, Deoxynivalenol, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A) in Domestic Bird Eggs: A Global Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and Probabilistic Risk Assessment

Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA), present significant health risks due to their carcinogenic and toxic properties. This study conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the global prevalence, concentration, and associated health risks of mycotoxins in domestic bird eggs. Following the PRISMA guideline, a comprehensive search was performed across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (2005–2024). Thirteen studies, encompassing 8,410 egg samples, were analyzed. The pooled prevalence and concentration of mycotoxins were estimated using random-effects models, while probabilistic risk assessment was performed via Monte Carlo simulation, calculating the Margin of Exposure (MOEs) and Hazard Quotient (HQ). The prevalence ranking of aflatoxins (AFs) in eggs was as follows: AFB₁ (19%) > AFB₂ (12%) > AFG₁ (10%) ≈ AFG₂ (10%). In terms of mean pooled concentration, mycotoxins followed this order: DON (83.93 µg/kg) > ZEN (6.00 µg/kg) > AFs (5.604 µg/kg) > OTA (2.52 µg/kg). Concentrations of DON and OTA were higher in egg white than in yolk, whereas ZEN levels were higher in yolk. From a public health perspective, risk assessment revealed alarming exposure levels, particularly in China, Egypt, and Jordan, where MOE values for AFB₁ were significantly below the safety threshold (MOEs < 10,000). Children were found to be at heightened risk due to their lower body weight and developing physiological systems, with MOEs as low as 3 in China. Additionally, HQ analyses indicated nonnegligible risks from DON, OTA, and ZEN, particularly in China and Poland, where dietary exposure may contribute to chronic toxicity or endocrine disruption.