In vitro and in Vivo Models for Understanding Clostridioides difficile.

Several in vitro and in vivo models have been developed for characterizing Clostridioides difficile infection and disease. Syrian hamster and mouse models are the primary in vivo models of infection. Invertebrate animals and in vitro approaches can be used to model different steps of colonization and disease. In vitro models vary in complexity, with some facilitating high throughput screening under simple culture conditions and others reproducing more complex features of host-pathogen interactions. As no single model fully reproduces the disease spectrum in patients, optimal study design should integrate output from multiple, complementary models to inform our understanding of C. difficile.