Environmental trade-offs of EV battery end-of-life options in Thailand: A life cycle assessment with sensitivity to electricity mix and battery degradation

As electric vehicle (EV) adoption accelerates, understanding the environmental impacts of EV batteries—particularly at their end-of-life (EOL)—is essential. This study presents a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) comparing two EOL strategies: (1) immediate recycling and (2) repurposing for an additional ten years prior to recycling. The analysis covers the entire battery life cycle, using real-world load profiles from a Thai fruit export community and projected electricity mixes under three national decarbonization pathways. Environmental performance is assessed across four impact categories: global warming potential, freshwater ecotoxicity, human non-carcinogenic toxicity, and mineral resource scarcity. Results highlight that the battery production and primary use phases contribute most to environmental impacts. However, second-life use can significantly offset emissions, especially in carbon-intensive grid scenarios. In the second-use phase, sensitivity analysis showed that variations in capacity degradation and usable cell rates did not affect the total energy savings or environmental outcomes when the lost capacity was compensated by additional repurposed batteries. Among all scenarios, repurposing batteries before recycling under “30% reduction in carbon intensity by 2030” policy achieved the highest overall sustainability score, offering a balanced reduction across all impact categories. Expert-weighted impact factors further enhance the robustness of the assessment. This study offers actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders, supporting circular economy strategies and reinforcing the role of second-life applications in Thailand's low-carbon transition.