The roles of non-governmental organizations in the co-production of urban greenspaces in Beijing

Co-production research primarily focused on the citizen-government dynamic, but the involving of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as intermediaries reshaped the relationship. Little is known about how NGOs navigate their roles in co-production where state control remains strong and civil society operates informally. Understanding these dynamics is crucial because NGOs can either reinforce or challenge existing power structures, influencing the extent to which co-production leads to more inclusive urban governance. This study explores how formal and informal NGO-government relations, along with the strong and weak state embeddedness, shape the roles of NGOs in the planning, development, and management of greenspaces in Beijing, China. Data were collected from 42 in-depth interviews with NGO staffs, citizens, and governments, who actively engaged in greenspace co-production in Beijing. The findings reveal that in informal interactions, NGOs are initiators, promoters, and supervisors in co-producing greenspaces. They invite government participation, initiate joint efforts, and align their environmental missions with national policies to achieve influence and advocacy. Strongly embedded NGOs typically act as service providers, while less embedded NGOs serve as advocates, shaping policy influence and public mobilization. By unpacking the mechanisms through which NGOs operate in co-production, this study sheds light on how NGOs expand civic space, negotiate authority, and navigate structural constraints. The participation of NGOs in the co-production of greenspaces in China contributes to advancing procedural and recognitional justice.