Sustainable dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction optimized by response surface methodology for multiclass emerging contaminants in surface water

A green and efficient analytical method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 22 multiclass emerging contaminants (ECs) in surface water using dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) coupled with chromatographic analysis. Targeted compounds include pharmaceuticals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), pesticides, and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are rarely addressed collectively in a single DLLME workflow. The method was optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM), enabling the robust modelling of parameter interactions with reduced experimental runs. Environmentally benign, low-toxicity solvents were selected to enhance the greenness of the method without compromising extraction performance. The method exhibited satisfactory performance, including low detection limits reaching up to 0.01 ng/mL range and good repeatability. Its environmental sustainability, assessed via the AGREE metric, yielded a high score of 0.64 versus 0.43 for conventional approaches, validating its alignment with Green Analytical Chemistry (GAC) principles. Application to real surface water samples confirmed its effectiveness for the comprehensive, green monitoring of trace-level ECs in aquatic environments.