Floods, land loss, and gendered vulnerability: Assessing the social impacts of small hydropower in Vietnam

Small hydropower projects (SHPs) are often promoted as environmentally sustainable energy solutions in the Global South. However, their socio-environmental impacts, especially on vulnerable and marginalized communities, remain underexplored. This study examines the impacts of the Xoong Con SHP in north-central Vietnam through an integrated approach combining remote sensing, household surveys, random forest classification, focus group discussion and key informant interviews. Grounded in the frameworks of livelihood vulnerability, political ecology of water, and energy justice, the study investigates how flood exposure, land loss, and governance structures affect local well-being and equity. Our findings reveal that land loss is the most significant structural driver of near-poverty, particularly among households that lost agricultural or aquaculture land. Gender and age emerged as key determinants of economic vulnerability, with single female-headed households disproportionately affected. Remote sensing analysis confirmed significant flooding in downstream agricultural areas, corroborating local perceptions of hydrological change. While the hydropower company has provided some community support, limited awareness and unequal benefit distribution undermine its effectiveness. This study highlights critical gaps in both distributive and procedural justice in SHP development. It underscores the importance of disaggregated social impact assessments, gender-sensitive planning, and inclusive benefit-sharing mechanisms. Without such measures, small-scale hydropower risks reinforcing structural inequalities and livelihood insecurities rather than promoting sustainable development. The findings provide actionable insights for policymakers, planners, and energy developers to ensure SHPs contribute to both low-carbon transitions and socially just outcomes across hydropower-dependent regions.