Blurred boundaries: Exploring the complexity of the production system at the Luomaqiao kiln in Yuan-dynasty Jingdezhen

The conceptual framework of attached and independent production has long shaped archaeological studies of ancient craft organization. While this dichotomy is often regarded as an oversimplification, the nuanced variations within ancient craft production systems remain insufficiently explored. This study addresses the complexities of attached production through a case study of the Luomaqiao kiln site in Yuan-dynasty Jingdezhen (1271–1368 CE) —a state-affiliated workshop that produced high-quality porcelain. By integrating high-resolution compositional analysis (LA-ICP-MS) with archaeological and historical evidence, the study examines raw material selection and use, as well as the associated organizational dynamics. Specifically, it identifies three major porcelain styles—egg-white (luanbai), bluish-white (qingbai), and grayish-green (huiqing) glazed porcelain—each produced with geochemically distinct raw materials, reflecting deliberate choices in sourcing and production strategy. Notably, the luanbai porcelains bearing five-clawed dragon motifs—symbols strictly reserved for imperial use—exhibit exceptional chemical purity and homogeneity, suggesting the possible use of the yutu (imperial clay) as described in historical records. However, this special clay was also employed in the production of ordinary luanbai wares, implying that imperial resources were not strictly confined to official products but circulated more broadly within the kiln system. These findings reveal a production system in which the boundaries between attached and independent modes are blurred, reflecting significant artisan agency within a state-controlled framework. Recognizing the duality and fluidity inherent in Yuan-dynasty porcelain production in Jingdezhen underscores the need for more nuanced frameworks that capture the dynamic interplay between state control and artisan agency, thereby offering broader insights for archaeological interpretations of ancient craft production systems.