An efficient knowledge-driven method for generating complex labels on geological maps

Geological labels play a pivotal role in communicating the age, lithology, and genesis of geological units on maps. In regions such as China and neighboring countries, complex labeling—featuring a mix of English, Greek letters, numerals, superscripts, and subscripts—is widely used but challenging to produce manually. This paper presents a novel, knowledge-driven method for the automatic generation of complex geological labels by integrating labeling principles with a structured Geological Label Knowledge Base (GLKB) and a Vector Space Model (VSM). The proposed method streamlines label formatting and placement within GIS environments, ensuring precision, consistency, and scalability. Case studies demonstrate significant improvements in efficiency—up to 99.9977 %—compared to manual methods. This approach offers a robust solution for enhancing geological map production at large scales.