Trade, extended use, and end of life in the Global South: A regionally expanded electric vehicle life cycle assessment

The environmental impacts of exporting second-hand electric vehicles (SH EVs) to lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are increasingly relevant as electric vehicle (EV) adoption rises in high-income countries. This study uses a regionally expanded life cycle assessment model to evaluate the lifecycle environmental performance of SH EV exports, their net benefits to LMICs, and their role in the global transition to electric mobility. The model integrates expert elicitation to capture informal practices in vehicle repair, dismantling, and recycling in LMICs, focusing on the US–Mexico second-hand vehicle trade relationship. Key findings reveal that export timing significantly influences life cycle performance, particularly regarding battery degradation, replacement, and recycling. Compared to retention in the United States, exporting an SH EV under average use conditions increases global warming potential (GWP) by 16%, non-carcinogenic human toxicity potential (HTP-NC) by 74%, and terrestrial ecotoxicity potential (TEP) by 16%. In contrast, while established second-hand internal combustion engine vehicle exports have historically shifted environmental burdens to LMICs—increasing Mexico's operational emissions by 107% relative to its average vehicle—SH EVs reduce operational emissions by 82% (GWP), 96% (HTP-NC), and 97% (TEP), particularly as electricity grids decarbonize. Despite these advantages, limited end-of-life battery management systems in LMICs raise concerns about toxicity risks. The study underscores the need for cross-border cooperation to establish common regulatory frameworks and develop recycling capacity in LMICs, preventing environmental burden shifting and advancing critical mineral circularity. These insights provide policymakers a foundation to ensure SH EV trade supports a just, sustainable transition to electric mobility.