Optimization, simulation and techno-economic studies of microwave-assisted oil extraction from Calophyllum inophyllum L. kernels

This study focused on optimizing and evaluating the efficiency of oil extraction from Calophyllum inophyllum L. kernels using hexane as the solvent through microwave-assisted extraction. The process was systematically studied using a central composite design under response surface methodology to determine the influence of three key parameters solvent: seed kernel (v/w) ratio, extraction temperature, and extraction time. Optimal conditions were identified as a solvent: kernel (v/w) ratio of 15.92 mL/g, a temperature of 39.95 °C, and an extraction time of 26.64 min, achieving a maximum oil yield of 68.76 %. Analysis of variance confirmed that the solvent: kernel (v/w) ratio and extraction time were significant factors affecting the oil yield. Chemical profiling of the extracted oil via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed oleic acid (C18:1) as the predominant fatty acid, emphasizing the oil potential for various industrial applications. Kinetic studies established that the extraction process followed a first-order reaction with an activation energy of 44.62 kJ/mol. To evaluate scalability, a plant simulation was developed using the Aspen Plus software, with economic modeling performed using Aspen Process Economic Analyzer, and revealed that the oil selling price was the most critical parameter influencing profitability. Financial assessment indicated the process viability, with a net present value of $4,246,890, an internal rate of return of 15.65 %, and a payback period of 8.01 years. These findings highlight the feasibility and economic potential of MAE for Calophyllum inophyllum L. oil (CLO) extraction on an industrial scale.