Evaluating the sonophotocatalytic activity of Fe(III) doped cobalt oxide nanoparticles prepared by planetary ball milling method in the degradation of amoxicillin as a pollutant

The world’s waters threatened by the dual forces of demographic growth and industrial expansion. Advanced oxidation techniques, particularly photocatalytic processes, offer a practical and eco-friendly solution to this problem by decomposing organic contaminants, providing a cleaner and safer aquatic environment. Doping of iron(III) ions through the ball milling method was applied to study the activity of nanoparticles (NPs) in the visible spectrum. Advanced techniques were employed to characterize synthesized NPs, utilizing Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET). The synthesized NPs exhibit a consistent mesoporous structure, as demonstrated by the experimental findings. Research findings indicate that the application of sonocatalytic, photocatalytic, and sonophotocatalytic techniques significantly reduced amoxicillin (AMX), a pharmaceutical pollutant, levels by 46.26%, 60.34%, and 83.14%, respectively, within the one-hour timeframe when utilizing Co₃O₄/Fe³⁺ NPs. The 40.37% synergistic effect demonstrated the doped NPs’ efficiency. Additionally, the experimental data strongly aligns with the pseudo-second-order equation, confirming the reaction’s adherence to second-order kinetics. Scavengers like formic acid, disodium oxalate, and isopropanol demonstrated a reduction impact, slowing down the degradation rate by 29.44%, 36.62%, and 74%, respectively. Furthermore, across all four cycles, the negligible decline in the degradation rate confirmed the Co₃O₄/Fe³⁺ NPs’ reusability and performance.