Mechanisms of programmed cell death in livestock follicular development and atresia: a review

Programmed cell death (PCD), including autophagy, apoptosis, and ferroptosis, is a fundamental biological process that plays a critical role in follicular development and atresia in livestock. In ovaries, the vast majority of follicles undergo atresia, while only a small fraction reach ovulation. Emerging evidence suggests that these three forms of PCD are intricately involved in regulating follicular fate through distinct yet interconnected molecular mechanisms. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the roles of autophagy, apoptosis, and ferroptosis in follicular development and atresia, with a focus on their molecular mechanisms and interactions. By elucidating the complex regulatory networks of PCD in ovarian physiology, this review aims to provide new insights into improving reproductive efficiency in livestock through targeted modulation of these pathways.