The development of copper metallurgy in ancient Mongolia: The current state of knowledge

Metallurgy played a pivotal role in the technological and economic development of nomadic societies, with gold, silver, copper, bronze, and iron used to produce a diverse range of artefacts. These objects—including tools, weapons, ceremonial items, chariot and horse fittings, and jewellery—offer valuable insights into trade and exchange networks that connected modern Mongolian territories with neighbouring regions. Despite the growing interest from international scholars and research teams in Mongolian archaeology, archaeometallurgical studies remain underrepresented in Western-language publications. This article addresses this gap by presenting the current state of knowledge on the emergence of copper-based metallurgy in Mongolia. Using the chaîne opératoire approach, we synthesise key research findings on Bronze Age copper metallurgy, including a refined chronology of the Mongolian Bronze Age, an updated distribution map of copper mines, production debris (including mining, smelting, and casting), metal products, and a summary of the cultural and ritual significance of ancient metalworking in Mongolia. By consolidating these studies, we propose future research directions that promise to yield new discoveries, thereby contributing to the rapidly expanding field of Archaeometry research in Mongolia.