Hazard analysis of parallel fueling of LOX/kerosene at space launch site: Accident scenario construction and lab-scale experiments

Liquid oxygen (LOX)/Rocket kerosene propulsion systems play a crucial role in space missions worldwide, offering advantages such as high thrust, safe storage, and low environmental impact. The physical properties of liquid fuels enable parallel fueling, significantly reducing launch preparation time. However, the safety of parallel fueling of LOX and rocket kerosene remains insufficiently assessed. Given that kerosene flammability increases with oxygen leakage, a comprehensive hazard analysis is essential. This study investigates potential oxygen-enriched fire scenarios arising from LOX and kerosene contact during parallel fueling at the launch sites. A series of small-scale fire experiments were conducted to quantify the effect of oxygen concentration on the ignition, combustion, and fire spread conditions and patterns of rocket kerosene. Based on experimental findings and accident scenarios analysis, a hazard analysis of the launch site and its surrounding environment was performed. Insights into hazard mitigation were also provided.