The associations between landscape elements and soundscape perception: A meta-analysis

This study conducts a meta-analysis to quantify the robust associations between landscape elements and the two main dimensions of soundscape perception—pleasantness and eventfulness—and to explain the sources of heterogeneity in these relationships. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search of the Web of Science and Scopus databases yielded 14 papers providing 69 independent samples for analysis. The results showed that natural elements and the crowd were generally associated with higher pleasantness, with the strongest positive correlations found for vegetation (Summary r, Sr = 0.59) and the crowd (Sr = 0.56). Anthropogenic elements exhibited a design-dependent duality: those with positive cultural and artistic attributes were positively associated with pleasantness (Sr = 0.42), while functional and traffic-related elements were negatively associated (Sr = -0.64). For eventfulness, the crowd was the strongest positive correlate (Sr = 0.61), followed by positive anthropogenic elements (Sr = 0.52) and the sky (Sr = 0.37). Conversely, functional anthropogenic elements were negatively associated with eventfulness (Sr = -0.53), while water bodies showed no significant overall association. High heterogeneity in many associations was explained through sensitivity and subgroup analyses, revealing that site function (e.g., park vs. commercial area) and element characteristics are key moderating factors. This study moves beyond qualitative descriptions to provide a quantitative, evidence-based foundation for soundscape design, offering actionable insights for creating healthier and more pleasant urban acoustic environments through context-aware landscape interventions.