An efficient and precise solution-vacuum hybrid batch fabrication of 2D/3D perovskite submodules

The quickly processable solution deposition and accurately controllable vacuum deposition are the two competing mainstream fabrication techniques for perovskite films. However, the former may inevitably leave pinholes on film surface and calls for further treatment, the latter exhibits a generally low processing rate. In this work, we develop a solution-vacuum hybrid batch fabrication to precisely deposit nanoscale two-dimensional (2D) capping layer via all-vacuum evaporation on a solution-deposited three-dimensional bulk film. The all-vacuum-deposited 2D perovskite capping layer can be finely controlled with desired composition and stoichiometry to passivate defects and heal the pristine pinholes. We demonstrate the high processing scalability of this solution-vacuum hybrid deposition with the fabrication of 30 cm × 30 cm pinhole-free perovskite submodules, which achieve a champion power conversion efficiency (PCE) up to 22.10% (certified PCE of 21.79%). Our discovery lays out a novel way for efficient and reproducible large-scale production of perovskite modules.