Nanofiltration membranes for efficient removal of pharmaceuticals from wastewater: A state-of-the-art review

Pharmaceutical contamination in water systems has emerged as a pressing global issue due to its persistence, bioactivity, and adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. These compounds, originating from widespread usage and excretion, often resist conventional wastewater treatment processes. The development of effective and economically viable removal technologies is therefore a critical environmental priority. This review examines recent advancements in the application of nanofiltration (NF) membranes for the removal of pharmaceuticals from wastewater. It analyzes removal mechanisms primarily size exclusion and electrostatic repulsion along with the influence of membrane material, pore size, surface charge, and water chemistry. Various NF membrane types, including commercial, polymeric, ceramic, and hybrid designs, are categorized and compared. Economic aspects, such as capital and operational costs, are also assessed. The NF membranes show high efficacy in removing a broad spectrum of pharmaceuticals, particularly high-molecular-weight and charged compounds. However, removal performance varies with membrane and contaminant properties. The review highlights cost challenges and stresses the need for life-cycle economic evaluations. Key research gaps are identified, including the need for enhanced selectivity, fouling resistance, and long-term sustainability. This study serves as a foundation for advancing NF membrane technologies for pharmaceutical pollution control.