Combating antibiotic pollution and its impacts on the environment through sustainable remediation options: Current developments and challenges

Antibiotics are extensively used in medicine, agriculture, aquaculture, and animal husbandry. Over recent decades, global consumption of both prescribed and unprescribed antibiotics has surged significantly. Due to poor absorption in living organisms, substantial amounts of antibiotics and their metabolites are excreted and enter wastewater systems. Additionally, effluents from healthcare facilities, agricultural runoff, and pharmaceutical industries contribute heavily to environmental antibiotic contamination. The presence of antibiotics in aquatic ecosystems poses serious risks to human health and aquatic life, even at nano- or microgram concentrations. This review offers a comprehensive analysis of antibiotic sources and their ecological impacts, including the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes and the rise of multidrug-resistant bacteria. To better understand environmental persistence and interactions, the classification and mechanisms of action of major antibiotics are discussed. The review further explores advanced detection methods designed to quantify trace antibiotic levels, emphasizing approaches tailored to specific antibiotic classes. Among various remediation strategies, enzymatic bioremediation is highlighted as a highly promising solution. Enzymes such as β-lactamases, laccases, and peroxidases are evaluated for their efficacy in degrading diverse antibiotic classes. The role of microbial remediation involving bacteria and fungi in antibiotic degradation is also examined. By integrating insights into sources, impacts, detection, and remediation techniques, this review provides a holistic perspective on antibiotic pollution and outlines sustainable pathways to mitigate environmental and public health risks. Importantly, this study underscores enzymatic bioremediation's high specificity and potential for scalability, offering a critical roadmap for advancing sustainable antibiotic removal technologies.