Comprehensive review of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in groundwater: occurrence, ecological impacts, analytical techniques, and remediation strategies

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represent an extensive class of synthetic compounds known for their persistence due to extremely stable carbon‑fluorine bond, widely detected in aquifers worldwide (e.g.: PFOA 5650.2 ng/L and PFOS 203.3 ng/L, on average). Most of these compounds pose significant acute or chronic health risks. Besides this, the literature suggests that contamination by at least one PFAS is expected in all locations. Furthermore, PFAS plumes tend to be larger than those associated with hydrocarbons and volatile chlorinated organic compounds, and their remediation poses greater challenges due to limited understanding of their behavior, transformations, and remediation mechanism. Given the extent of the occurrence of these chemicals and their adverse effects, the need to develop detection and measurement techniques, in addition to remediation technologies, is evident. This review systematically examines literature published between 2014 and 2025, on Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases, to address these limitations. It discusses the extent of PFAS contamination, their ecological effects, and the key mechanisms influencing their mobility and retention in subsurface environments. It also critically evaluates the latest advances in analytical techniques for PFAS detection and highlights emerging strategies for effective remediation in-situ, providing a base for further research and development.