Development and performance evaluation of a cost-effective ceramic membrane for efficient bacterial removal in water treatment: optimization and life cycle assessment†

Ensuring safe drinking water remains a global challenge, particularly due to microbial contamination in conventional sources. To address this, the present study investigates a cost-effective ceramic membrane fabricated from Fuller's earth clay for efficient bacterial removal, aiming to provide a sustainable water treatment solution. The developed membrane, characterized by 39% porosity and a 0.176 μm pore size, was evaluated for its efficacy in separating bacteria from water. The study rigorously examined the influence of applied pressure and feed optical density (OD) on the membrane's operational efficiency using a central composite design (CCD). The results revealed that higher pressure improved flux, while the highest rejection rates were achieved at moderate feed OD. The optimal conditions identified by the model are 43 psi pressure and 0.48 feed OD; the membrane achieved 91.6% rejection of bacterial cells with a flux of 52.91 L m⁻² h⁻¹. The analysis of the environmental impacts of the fabricated membrane was mainly linked to energy use during fabrication and suggests that transitioning from fossil fuel sources can reduce these impacts by 97%. Furthermore, regeneration and fouling resistance analysis revealed that the membrane can be efficiently regenerated, highlighting its potential for long-term use. These findings suggest that the developed Fuller's earth ceramic membrane offers a cost-effective and sustainable solution for bacterial removal in decentralized water treatment systems, demonstrating promising regeneration capabilities.