Detailed observations reveal the genesis and dynamics of destructive debris-flow surges.

Debris flows are one of the most damaging natural hazards in mountainous terrain. Their dynamics are controlled by both surging behaviour and the influence of large boulders. However, a lack of high-resolution field measurements has limited our mechanistic understanding of these important processes. Here, we provide high-resolution in situ debris-flow surge measurements that demonstrate that surges are formed by the spontaneous growth of small surface instabilities into large waves, which amplify the destructiveness of the flow by increasing peak discharge. We use our field measurements to invert for the effective basal friction experienced by the flow, and support this reconstruction using numerical simulations that reproduce the formation and propagation of the surges. Detailed analysis of the inverted frictional data further shows that large boulders in the flow can influence local flow dynamics by increasing basal resistance, but this is not required to drive the surge wave instability. Our analysis provides new insights into debris-flow dynamics and can provide the foundation for improved hazard management of these damaging processes.