How do local communities perceive marine protected area governance, management, surrounding development, and outcomes? A systematic review.

The United Nations aims to protect 30 % of the ocean by 2030, requiring an over threefold expansion in marine protected area coverage (MPAs). Understanding local communities' perceptions - whose livelihoods are directly impacted by an MPA - is crucial for achieving this ambitious target. However, a systematic review of the literature on this topic has been lacking. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, this paper synthesises findings from 98 empirical studies. Three themes have received particular attention: perceptions of participation in MPA decision-making (investigated in 52 % of the studies), enforcement practices (46 %), and ecological outcomes, particularly changes in fish abundance (48 %). In contrast, perceptions of associated alternative livelihoods programmes (explored in 5 % of the studies) and socio-economic outcomes, including employment opportunities (7 %), food security (8 %), and subjective well-being (15 %), remain understudied. Geographically, most studies examined MPAs in East Asia and the Pacific (33 %), Sub-Saharan Africa (23 %), Latin America (20 %), and Europe (15 %), while fewer focused on MPAs in North America (7 %), South Asia (2 %), and none in North Africa and the Middle East. Future research should address these gaps, expand geographic representation, and identify actionable strategies to align actual MPA governance, management, and development with best practices. Decision-makers and practitioners should ensure that MPAs meet community expectations through regular consultation using appropriate tools. Ultimately, the success of MPAs relies not only on achieving measurable beneficial outcomes but also on how these outcomes, and the processes used to achieve them, are perceived by local communities.