Advancements in wearable electrochemical biosensors: The next generation of insulin detection devices.

Insulin resistance, characterized by an impaired biological response to insulin stimulation in target tissues, primarily affects the muscle, liver, and adipose tissue. This dysfunction impairs glucose disposal, triggering compensatory β-cell insulin overproduction and resulting in hyperinsulinemia. Its metabolic consequences include hypertension, hyperglycemia, hyperuricemia, dyslipidemia, elevated inflammatory markers, prothrombotic state, and endothelial dysfunction. One of the most significant issues is type 2 diabetes (T2D), which is preceded by insulin resistance (IR) for an estimated 10-15 years. Addressing the challenges of insulin detection requires a multidisciplinary approach, including advancements in wearable electrochemical biosensors for real-time insulin monitoring. This chapter explores the physiological role of insulin, the history and challenges of insulin detection, and the latest developments in sensing technologies. We discuss emerging innovations with significant healthcare applications, particularly in point-of-care testing (POCT) and telemedicine. Additionally, we highlight translational gaps and the barriers to integrating novel detection technologies into clinical practice. Continued interdisciplinary collaboration and technological innovation are crucial for enhancing insulin detection, improving long-term outcomes, and advancing personalized healthcare. Wearable biosensors, as cutting-edge analytical tools, offer transformative opportunities for biomedical and translational research, fostering proactive lifestyle, nutrition, and medical interventions.