Three decades of neurofeedback in motor behavior research: A systematic review in healthy young adults

Neurofeedback is a promising tool for enhancing motor behavior by integrating optimal brain states into practice. This scoping review systematically mapped the available evidence on the effects of neurofeedback on motor performance in healthy young adults. Literature searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science in January 2023, covering studies published from 1990 to 2023. Of the 5271 records screened, 43 studies met the inclusion criteria, involving over 1290 participants. These studies yielded a total of 56 protocol-specific analyses. Among them, 25 did not incorporate motor practice into the neurofeedback protocol, relying solely on a pretest-posttest design. Eleven analyses included practice sessions prior to neurofeedback, while nine delivered neurofeedback during motor execution. The findings revealed that many studies have overlooked established behavioral principles when designing neurofeedback interventions. Basic methodological aspects, such as sex differences, laterality, and the assessment of learning, were often neglected. Furthermore, evidence regarding the effectiveness of neurofeedback for enhancing motor learning remains limited. The quality of studies examining various motor tasks, including visuomotor adaptation, sequential movement execution, and temporal performance, was predominantly low to moderate. These shortcomings underscore the need for more rigorous and behaviorally informed approaches in future research.